Seeds of Science

Superbugs! They’re the hospital’s worst nightmare. They have the power to cause pneumonia, skin infections, urinary tract infections, and can even result in death. Most prevalent in hospitals, it’s not astonishing that healthcare workers must take serious precaution to prevent any spreads.

First, what are superbugs? Superbugs are bacteria, which are not easily killed by existing drugs due to antibiotic resistance. A notorious superbug is MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) also known as the infamous “flesh eating bacteria” which essentially causes infections in the skin. MRSA is resistant to amoxicillin, oxacillin, methicillin,  and penicillin.

The infection starts with painful, swollen, and red bumps which appear on the skin surface. These bumps feel warm to the touch and contain pus (a thick yellowish opaque liquid which consists of dead white blood cells and bacteria, commonly produced in infected tissue). These bumps rapidly transcend into painful abscesses which require surgical draining. MRSA generally infects skin around open wounds, but may also infect undamaged, intact skin.

Occasionally, the bacteria remains confined to the skin surface, however has the ability to enter the body. The bacteria enters through and can potentially cause severe infections and trauma in the bloodstream, heart valves, joints, and lungs.

MRSA is contagious as well and is spread by skin contact. Thus, those who frequent crowded areas or play contact sports are more likely to contract the infection. [Schools and dormitories are also known for infection spreads]. Individuals may contract MRSA by simply sharing items (hairbrushes, razors, clothes) with an infected individual. A hospices crowded nature also warrants its prevalence in hospitals. While a primary cause for the spread is related to patients vulnerability, MRSA is just as capable of infecting healthy individuals (though infections are more commonly seen in the wounded).

While MRSA spreads in other environments, spreads are the most predominant are in nursing homes, hospitals, and regular clinics, where MRSA infects the vulnerable- immunocompromised patients. Invasive surgical procedures also contribute to higher risks of contracting MRSA. Reason being that a pathway to inside the body is exposed.

When a patient has contracted MRSA, they are also more susceptible to contracting other infections as well. MRSA may lead to sepsis if left untreated. Additionally, unaffected carriers of MRSA can still spread the infection to others (MRSA Carrier- One who carries MRSA bacteria in their bodies, which has had no affect on them).

How do healthcare workers prevent the spread?

In hospitals, patients with MRSA are placed in isolation units, where person contact is limited. Any visitors or workers visiting those in isolation must wear protective gear and follow strict hygiene guidelines. All physicians take precautions dealing with patients in general, but exercise stricter regulations when dealing with isolation patients. When treating patients with MRSA, physicians wear masks, gloves, and gowns to protect themselves.

MRSA is notorious for its resistant nature and various antibiotics have been proposed to prevent further spread of the infection. As previously mentioned, some procedures involve surgical draining which help deal with surface level infections.

Despite the scare of MRSA, researchers and hospitals continue working diligently to prevent the spread. As minors, what can we do to aid our healthcare workers? We can start by conducting our own research, taking necessary precautions, educating our peers, and contributing to fundraisers, all towards helping discover a cure!

Works Referenced

DerSarkissian, Carol. “MRSA and Other Hospital Acquired Infections: Reducing Your Risks.” WebMD, WebMD, 8 Feb. 2020, http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/mrsa-and-other-hospital-acquired-infections-reducing-your-risks.

“For Patients.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 31 Jan. 2019, http://www.cdc.gov/mrsa/community/patients.html.

McCue, Jack D. “The Contagious Patient.” Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd Edition., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1990, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK337/.

“MRSA Infection.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 18 Oct. 2018, http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mrsa/symptoms-causes/syc-20375336.

Staff, Live Science. “MRSA Strikes More Hospital Patients, Study Finds.” LiveScience, Purch, 30 May 2013, http://www.livescience.com/36606-mrsa-infections-hospital-patients.html.

It’s hard to imagine an omelet without tomatoes or a burger without ketchup. It seems obvious that with ketchup being a popular condiment, that tomatoes must’ve been a stable for centuries. However, fairly recently has the tomato made its appearance into our diets. In Europe, following the late Middle Ages, tomatoes were considered deadly and were associated with witchcraft. Even in the late 1700s, the majority of Europeans feared the tomato, thinking it was poisonous. 

The tomato is not poisonous, but after many European aristocrats died after eating them, the tomato acquired the nickname “Poison Apple”. Reality was that aristocrats weren’t dying due to tomatoes, but rather due to their utensils of choice. The wealthy used pewter plates, which contained high amounts of lead. Tomatoes have a relatively high acidity, (approximately 3.5- 4.8), therefore when placed on pewter plates, the fruit would leech lead, from the plate, causing lead poisoning. Unable to splurge on trendy items, the lower classes used wooden plates, and were less susceptible to poisoning than the wealthy.

At that time, no speculations were made about the content of the plates, and the tomatoes were deemed so poisonous that even a small bite could bring about catastrophe.

Even before the led poisonings, the tomato was infamous in Europe. It was considered a part of the family of poisonous Solanaceae plants which consist of high amounts of toxins, called tropane alkaloids. The tomato was referred to as a “deadly nightshade”, and associated with the family.

While many believe the conjecture about pewter plates, Atlas Obscura points out flaws in the story. He claims that pewter plates weren’t common enough, tomatoes aren’t acidic enough, and lead poisoning gathers too slowly to lead to a poisoning in a singular meal. Atlas Obscura also brings forth theories that the unsatisfactory image resulted from its correlation with witchcraft.

Around this time period in Europe, (14-17th centuries), witchcraft was the primary subject of discussion. Through the centuries, thousands of people were killed or excommunicated under mere suspicion. Stories circulated about creations of witches brews, poisons, and their “flying ointments”. A common myth was that witches put this ointment on their broomsticks. These ointments consisted of mandrake, nightshade, and hemlock. With two of these ingredients having close correspondence with tomatoes, people began associating the tomato with witches.

This stigma around tomatoes persisted for centuries, but with the surface of science and technology, the fear of witchcraft started to fade. While many European kingdoms denounced tomatoes, civilizations in South America continued to consume them. Around the 1850s tomatoes began to infiltrate markets and became a stable.

And finally with the invention of Pizza in Naples, the tomato made its way into the common diet and its mysterious past was forgotten.